{"id":1278,"date":"2019-09-25T10:44:04","date_gmt":"2019-09-25T10:44:04","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/switches-sensors.zf.com\/de\/blog\/position-and-speed-sensor-types\/"},"modified":"2024-05-30T10:19:22","modified_gmt":"2024-05-30T10:19:22","slug":"position-and-speed-sensor-types","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/switches-sensors.zf.com\/de\/nachricht\/position-and-speed-sensor-types\/","title":{"rendered":"Position and speed sensor types"},"content":{"rendered":"[vc_row type=”in_container” full_screen_row_position=”middle” column_margin=”default” column_direction=”default” column_direction_tablet=”default” column_direction_phone=”default” scene_position=”center” text_color=”dark” text_align=”left” row_border_radius=”none” row_border_radius_applies=”bg” overflow=”visible” overlay_strength=”0.3″ gradient_direction=”left_to_right” shape_divider_position=”bottom” bg_image_animation=”none”][vc_column column_padding=”no-extra-padding” column_padding_tablet=”inherit” 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width=”1\/2″ tablet_width_inherit=”default” animation_type=”default” bg_image_animation=”none” border_type=”simple” column_border_width=”none” column_border_style=”solid” column_padding_type=”default” gradient_type=”default”][nectar_animated_title heading_tag=”h4″ style=”color-strip-reveal” color=”Accent-Color” text=”Position and speed sensor types”][vc_column_text text_direction=”default”]Nothing works without sensor technology. Any modern and smart technology relies on precise sensor technology \u2013 whether optical sensors, pressure, position, speed, temperature, or acceleration sensors. Their main task is to perceive various chemical and physical properties of the environment or of a target object.[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column_inner][\/vc_row_inner][vc_column_text text_direction=”default”]\n
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Based on this perception, machines operate autonomously, so the reliability and accuracy of the sensors play a key role in functional security.<\/p>\n

The target of this article is to provide a general understanding of position and speed sensor types with their underlying strengths and weaknesses. Each sensor is suitable for a specific application field. The illustration below shows different sensor principles for position and speed measurement without any claim for completeness.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\"Sensor-Principles-Illustration\"<\/span><\/p>\n

\n

Technical specifications of position and speed sensors<\/strong><\/p>\n

Due to the vast number of sensor types and versions, it is a great challenge to choose the right sensor for a specific application. First, engineers need to define all relevant requirements which the sensor needs to fulfill. It must fit perfectly to the application, without over specification, and to reach a minimal cost.<\/p>\n

In general, sensor specifications can be divided into sensor type, electrical and mechanical characteristics as well as operating conditions. Due to these characteristics, sensors exhibit advantages and disadvantages for different applications. In the following section, several important sensor specifications are presented with explanations and examples.<\/p>\n

Sensor type
\n\u2013 Measurement type: Incremental or absolute
\n\u2013 Sensing principle: Optical, magnetic (hall-based, inductive), electromechanical<\/p>\n

Electrical characteristics
\n\u2013 Resolution: The smallest change which can be measured
\n\u2013 Repeatability: The stability of the sensor with repeated measurements from the same starting point
\n\u2013 Accuracy: Output veracity in %
\n\u2013 Type of electrical output: Analogue\/digital, serial\/parallel
\n\u2013 Electrical supply and output voltage\/current<\/p>\n

Mechanical characteristics
\n\u2013 Geometry: Dimensions, linear, rotary
\n\u2013 Scalability: e.g. 360\u00b0 angle, 500 mm linear measurement, 20kHz frequency
\n\u2013 Mechanical interfaces: Connector options, wire arrangements, mechanical fixing points
\n\u2013 Air gap (contactless sensors): e.g. 0,4 \u2013 2,2mm<\/p>\n

Operating conditions
\n\u2013 Temperature range
\n\u2013 Environmental factors: e.g. dust\/particles, humidity, shock, vibration, climate
\n\u2013 Protection classes: e.g. IP, ESD-susceptibility, short circuit strength<\/p>\n

Comparison of selected position & speed sensors<\/strong><\/p>\n

The main task of position sensors is the sensing of angular or linear displacements, distances, gaps, distensions and fill levels. The potentiometer as an electromechanical sensor is the most famous but also the oldest sensor type invented by the German physicist Johann Christian Poggendorff in the year 1841. Nowadays, several versions and types of the potentiometer exist. Manufacturers optimized the electromechanical sensor over time continuously to fulfill strict requirements for several new application fields. In addition, contactless sensors conquered the market over time as they have beneficial characteristics compared to the electromechanical potentiometer. These are discussed below.<\/p>\n

Speed and frequency sensors are used to measure the covered distance or angle per time unit. A major application field is the speed controlling and monitoring of asynchronous drive systems applied in various industries like on- and off-road vehicles, the energy sector, medical sector, automation and machinery sectors. In this field contactless sensors penetrated the market due to the lack of mechanical parts that wear out, yielding a long lifetime.<\/p>\n

In the following section the principle, applications, advantages and disadvantages of selected position and speed sensors are presented and compared.<\/p>\n

Potentiometers<\/strong><\/p>\n

Principle
\nPotentiometers use a resistive element in the form of a mechanical sliding contact for measuring linear or angular displacements. The slider is always in contact with a resistance path. The extent of resistance changes according to the movement of the slider. In addition to the mechanical part, every potentiometer needs an external power source so that the mechanical movement can be converted into an electrical signal. The voltage output depends on the extent of resistance and therefore on the rotation angle or covered distance. The measurement range, output signal and electrical connections are customizable and available by many electrical component manufacturers. Potentiometers provide absolute measuring figures in comparison to incremental sensors, whose measurement system is based on repetitive and periodic graduations.<\/p>\n

Strengths
\n\u2013 Low cost (pennies but high precision versions may cost up to $200)
\n\u2013 Flexibility in installation and characteristics
\n\u2013 No internal electronic components necessary
\n\u2013 Fast prototyping
\n\u2013 Availability by many manufacturers
\n\u2013 High resolution and accurate measurement (output veracity better than 1%)
\n\u2013 Redundancy for security-reliable signals
\n\u2013 Operating temperature range up to 250\u00b0C
\n\u2013 Measurement of large displacement (up to 360\u00b0; 1,500mm)<\/p>\n

Weaknesses
\n\u2013 Susceptible to wear, especially in high vibration environments (e.g. road vehicles, heavy plants or aircraft system)
\n\u2013 Susceptible to foreign particles such as dust\/sand which will abrade the resistive track (lifetime is reduced dramatically)
\n\u2013 Limited lifetime due to wear which can be rated for 500,000 cycles in average
\n\u2013 Not suitable for operation in liquids
\n\u2013 Not suitable for high accelerations (slider can separate)
\n\u2013 Digital converter is necessary, increasing cost
\n\u2013 Limited miniaturization which may limit available measuring scope<\/p>\n

Application fields
\nIn general, potentiometers are rather suitable for applications with modest duty cycles and benign environments. The requirements of applications should not be severe due to wear and friction of the mechanical slider.<\/p>\n

As potentiometers exist in a diversity of different versions with the advantage of low-price and widespread availability, they can be found in nearly every industry sector.<\/p>\n

Inductive encoders<\/strong><\/p>\n

Principle
\nAn inductive Encoder also known as an Incoder, is a contactless speed and positioning sensor suitable for linear and angular displacements. Based on the principle of electromagnetic induction the sensor measures, for example, in engines the position of a rotor relative to a stator. Main components of an inductive sensor are spools (traditional Incoder) or printed circuits on substrates (Incoder of a new generation). When a metal target approximates the inductor a change of magnetic field happens. From the law of induction, the sensor creates a voltage between the bipolar outlet, which is proportional to the temporal changing of a magnetic flux. This triggers a current which flows through the inductor and connected wires to the output device. The sensing range depends on the type of target material; ferrous metals allow a longer sensing range than nonferrous metals. The electronics can be placed away from the sensing area which allows for the use of the Incoder in rough environments.<\/p>\n

Strengths
\n\u2013 Safe and reliable operation also in tough conditions
\n\u2013 Contactless and free from wear
\n\u2013 Multiple geometries such as curvilinear, 2D & 3D position sensing
\n\u2013 For wide and small measuring ranges
\n\u2013 Operating temperature range up to 150\u00b0C
\n\u2013 High accuracy (based on a scale of 360\u00b0 up to 0,09\u00b0)
\n\u2013 New generation: Multi layers of thin sensors for redundant signals
\n\u2013 High EMV resistance
\n\u2013 Electronics can be located away from sensing area, \u2013 no protection necessary<\/p>\n

Weaknesses
\n\u2013 Traditional Incoder: Big size due to spooling and no redundancy measurement
\n\u2013 New generation: Cost factor
\n\u2013 Not suitable for low speed measurements (output signal depends on frequency)
\n\u2013 Susceptible to air gap variation<\/p>\n

Application fields
\n\u2013 Monitoring and controlling of safety related position applications (machinery manufacturing, plant engineering, on and off-road vehicles)
\n\u2013 Storing and handling technologies
\n\u2013 Engine & wheel speed sensor, diesel injection pump, cam shaft sensor
\n\u2013 Inductive engine tachometer (cranked shaft frequency sensor)<\/p>\n

Hall-based sensors<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\"Hall<\/span><\/p>\n

\n

Principle
\nHall effect sensors are highly sensitive to magnetic fields. They can be used for linear and rotary measurements as well as for speed and direction sensing. The main component of these sensors is the Hall IC and the underlying permanent magnet. The Hall effect is based on thin semiconductor chips. If such a current-carrying plate is penetrated vertically by an induction, B (permanent magnet), charge carriers are deflected by the Lorentz force perpendicular to the field. The current, I, provided by an external power supply is deflected from its otherwise straight path. So, a voltage, U, can be detected which occurs across the current direction between two opposite edge points of the plate. The output voltage, U, is proportional to the induction, B and the current, I.<\/p>\n

The magnetic field created by the permanent magnet is influenced as soon as an external ferromagnetic material approaches the sensor. Especially for speed sensing, the specifications of the target wheel and the air gap need to be compatible with the Hall sensor.<\/p>\n

Due to this principle, the sensor operation draws a continuous current supplied by an external power source. That\u2019s the reason why Hall sensors are considered active sensors, as they need integrated electronics? for signal processing. In direct contrast to the physical phenomena of induction, the Hall effect occurs under steady state conditions. The output voltage of the Hall IC persists even when the magnetic field is constant over time.<\/p>\n

Strengths
\n\u2013 True solid state, no moving parts, no wear and tear from friction
\n\u2013 Virtual unlimited life (billion range of operations)
\n\u2013 High speed operation \u2013 over 100kHz possible
\n\u2013 Operates with stationary input (zero speed)
\n\u2013 Broad temperature range (-40 to +150\u00b0C)
\n\u2013 Highly repeatable operation
\n\u2013 Small size (physically fits into many applications where other magnetic transducers would be too bulky)
\n\u2013 Ruggedness: Immune to shock and vibration, highly resistant to moisture and environmental contaminations
\n\u2013 Can detect direction of a field as well as its magnitude
\n\u2013 Cost effective
\n\u2013 Different types provide digital, analog, or programmable output
\n\u2013 2, 3 or 4 wire configurations available<\/p>\n

Weaknesses
\n\u2013 Sensors are ESD sensitive and magnetic flux from their surroundings (e.g. wires) can render results inaccurate
\n\u2013 Handles only DC loads
\n\u2013 Continuous current consumption is needed
\n\u2013 Needs integrated circuitry<\/p>\n

Application fields
\n\u2013 Successfully used in hostile environments such as inside automotive transmissions and down the bore-hole in oil well drilling equipment
\n\u2013 Speed of wheels and shafts, such as speed measuring, combustion engine ignition timing, anti-lock braking systems
\n\u2013 DC electric motors to detect the position of the permanent magnet
\n\u2013 Power Plants\/Wind energy: Turbine speed
\n\u2013 Angular sensors for steering and pedal systems for Off-Road vehicles
\n\u2013 ABS systems and speed measuring in E-Bikes<\/p>\n

Optical Encoder<\/strong><\/p>\n

Principle
\nOptical sensors are usually known as encoders and incremental position sensors for angular and linear measurements. They are also suitable for speed sensing. Main components are an LED, a turning and optical disk with a reference mark, and as a photo sensor with a squaring circuit. A generated light beam provided by the LED is shone through or onto a grating of the optical disk. The resulting light is measured by a photo sensor and is automatically converted into a digital output.<\/p>\n

Strengths
\n\u2013 Rotary encoders can achieve 50 \u2013 5,000 counts per revolution
\n\u2013 High accuracy if mounted precisely
\n\u2013 Low sensor weight
\n\u2013 Lifetime 80k \u2013 100k hours
\n\u2013 Not susceptible to ferromagnetic materials<\/p>\n

Weaknesses
\n\u2013 In robust environment measurements might fail when the lens or optical disk becomes concealed by foreign particles such as water, dirt or swarf.
\n\u2013 Susceptible to shock
\n\u2013 Little or no warning of imminent failure
\n\u2013 Limited operating temperature range (70\u00b0C maximum)<\/p>\n

Application fields
\n\u2013 Position as well as speed and direction measurement
\n\u2013 Applications which need high counts per revolution within a benign environment
\n\u2013 Suitable in environments\/applications with ferromagnetic materials<\/p>\n

Reed switch<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\"Reed-Switch-Sensors\"<\/span><\/p>\n

\n

Principle
\nThe reed switch was invented by Bell Labs in the 1930s. Within ten years it began to find applications widely as a position sensor in electronic and test equipment. In contrast to the other mentioned sensors in this article, the reed switch can only detect the end position of a target or it can be used as a speed sensor as it counts switching operation over time. The basic reed switch consists of two ferromagnetic nickel-iron wires which are located inside a hermetically sealed glass capsule. The two wires are formed into \u201creeds\u201d by flattening one end. The reed ends are carefully aligned with a small overlap. The glass capsule is filled with inert nitrogen. The reeds act as magnetic flux conductors when exposed to an external magnetic field. Poles of opposite polarity are created at the contact gap and the contacts close when the magnetic force exceeds the spring force of the reeds. The contacts open when the external magnetic field is reduced so that the magnetic attractive force between the reeds is less than the restoring spring force of the reeds.<\/p>\n

Strengths
\n\u2013 Zero power consumption (no external power required)
\n\u2013 Cycle life is typically in the millions of operations
\n\u2013 Cost effective
\n\u2013 Hermetically sealed: Immune to dust\/particles, water and moisture
\n\u2013 Reed switches are available in a variety of sizes with different ampere turns and hysteresis regarding magnet distance and magnet size
\n\u2013 Switching power: Handles both AC and DC loads, ability to switch from 10 nanovolts to 10,000 Volts and up to 5 Amps
\n\u2013 Immune to electrostatic discharge (ESD)
\n\u2013 Operating temperature ranges up to 200\u00b0C<\/p>\n

Weaknesses
\n\u2013 Susceptible to vibration\/shock above approximately 20g
\n\u2013 Can experience a change in sensitivity due to mechanical stress
\n\u2013 Speed measurement limited to operations below 1kHz
\n\u2013 Digital output (only end position detection)<\/p>\n

Application fields
\n\u2013 Position sensing (end position of a movement, only digital output)
\n\u2013 Speed measuring (counting switches)
\n\u2013 Relay applications (electronic instrumentation applications)
\n\u2013 Automotive and transportation (brake fluid sensor, headlights and taillights, mirror controls, crash safety sensing, tire pressure monitoring, gas cap detection)
\n\u2013 Smart Home (security systems, white goods, HVAC and plumbing)
\n\u2013 Safety and security (fire alarms, door sensors, window sensor, hotel security)
\n\u2013 Medical, telecommunication, test and measurement applications<\/p>\n

Summary<\/strong>
\nAll the presented sensors show different characteristics based on their physical principle so that there is no best sensor solution. It always depends on the respective application field. The following table gives a rough position and speed sensor comparison in terms of several key performance indicators. The evaluation is based on standard sensors of the particular sensor types as described above.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\"Sensor<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column][\/vc_row]\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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